"The Top Twenty": A Short Review of Who Says What.
The scaffolding: [The least possible knowledge?]
The philosophers are listed in chronological order. This is a good Chapter to check for the historical context of philosophers and their work.
If this is your first confrontation with these names and ideas, you probably won't gather all the information initially. As you read more of the other Chapters, some of these names and ideas will become more familiar. Also, this is a good place to refer back to while reading other portions of the pamphlet. This Chapter might help you put some of the ideas into perspective.
Notice definitions of the words Rationalist and Empiricist. Much of the history of Western philosophy has been an intertwining between Rationalists, those who think we learn first or more reliably through the mind; and Empiricists, those who think we learn first or more reliably through sensory perception. As you will see, Plato, Descartes, and others think ideas come first. Aristotle, Locke, and Hume, and others think we learn first from observation of the material world. (However, use of the terms Rationalist and Empiricist does not appear until the Modern era.)
How this is assembled: first is the name, followed by the "bumper sticker" version of what that thinker proposed; then, the nationality and dates follow; finally, there is a short paragraph condensing major thoughts. Quotations attributed to that thinker are given in quotation marks.
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Thales - "All is water."
(Greek, 6th C., b.c.) The first Western philosopher; he sought the basic element of the universe, without relying on religion: an effort just as controversial then as it is now.
Pythagoras - Cosmic harmony is based on the relations of numbers.
(Greek, 5th C., b.c.) Discovered the Pythagorean theorem; developed the musical scale; held that numbers could express the essence of all things, just as Physicists do today.
Zeno - Devised paradoxes showing that time and motion do not exist.
(Greek, 4th C., b.c.) Example: if we want to travel somewhere, we have to travel halfway there, then halfway of that, then halfway again. We get closer and closer, but we never actually get there! Mathematicians still explore his work.
Protagoras - "Man is the measure of all things."
(Greek, 4th C., b.c.) Taught that truth and the universe should be studied as relative to humans; founded the Sophists.
Socrates - "First, Do No Harm."
"Nothing to extremes."
"The unexamined life is not worth living."
His method included dialectic and paradox.
(Greek, 4th C., b.c.) Called the "wisest man in Athens," by the Oracle, Socrates knew that he knew nothing; he attempted to make others define their terms, and was the first moral philosopher. Said to be responsible for most of the Philosophy of Plato. (See also, "Proofs of God.)
Plato - Innate forms lead to understanding of ordinary experience.
Wrote Dialogues (conversations) about Socrates.
Wrote "The Republic," a political utopia.
(Greek, became a student of Socrates in 407 b.c.) Often considered the most influential Western philosopher. Wrote the "Apology," the defense of Socrates, one of the most read selections of Philosophy. In the "Allegory of the Cave," he wrote that we live trapped in shadows until we discover the real world of Philosophy. Forms, or ideas, are more real than the material world, and the ultimate idea is the Idea of the Good. Philosopher-Kings should rule. (Small note: the term "Platonic love" was coined by Victorian era philosophers who were embarrassed at the very sensual nature of some of Plato's writings and wanted to hide that from their students.)
Aristotle - "Man is a political animal."
(Greek, 3rd C., b.c.) Wrote earliest books on logic, biology, physics, metaphysics, ethics, and more. Wrote about the syllogism, causality, and category; tragedy, poetics, and rhetoric. Unlike Plato, he said form and matter are not separate. The Good Life is based on reason, and is, first, the intellectual life, and, second, involvement in politics (the moral life). Virtue is a learned habit that seeks moderation in all things. Thus, education and living in cities were necessary for happiness.
Aquinas, St. Thomas - Used reason to prove the existence of God.
(Italian, 1200's) Applied Aristotle to Christian revelation. Reason and faith are gifts of God. Evil is not a separate being, but is the absence of good. A major theologian of the Roman Catholic Church. (See also, "Proofs of God.)
William of Occam- "Occam's Razor."
The simplest explanation is usually the best.
(English, 1300's) An early Franciscan, educated at Oxford, who argued that Jesus lived in poverty; argued against Aquinas by saying faith was superior to reason; supported the separation of Philosophy and Theology; excommunicated.
Rene Descartes - Modern philosopher who began with doubt.
"I think, therefore, I am."
Dualist (Mind and Matter are the two basic parts of the
Universe.)
Rationalist (We know the world best through the mind.)
(French, 1600's) Set aside all that he had been taught to examine what he truly knew: a radical idea; decided he could not doubt that he was doubting, and therefore was thinking; as long as he was thinking, he was existing. He proved the existence of God (see, "Proof of God), and, because God would not deceive us, therefore, the material world must exist. Developed study of optics (particularly reflection and refraction: He is responsible for eyeglasses). Also, he devised, God bless him: analytical geometry, Cartesian coordinates, negative roots, and exponent notation.
John Locke - Knowledge comes from sensory experience.
Empiricist (We know the world best through sensory
experience.)
(British, 1600's) Founder of British empiricism, he said each of us is born as a blank tablet on which the senses transcribe the experiences of the world. He furthered the use of the Social Contract theory of government, that each person contracts with the whole: government depends on the consent of the governed. He developed the system of checks and balances in government. He believed humans are by nature good.
David Hume - Skeptic.
(Scottish, 1700's) Empiricist. He considered the mind only a bundle of sensory perceptions, not a separate entity. He saw no reason to accept the existence of God, a soul, a mind, the material world, or that any one thing caused another. (See also, Chapter on "Skepticism")
Immanuel Kant - Morality is based on a universal rule.
"The Categorical Imperative."
(German, 1700's) Synthesized Rationalism and Empiricism: We know the world through sensory perceptions passing through the filter of the categories of the mind; he defined what those categories are. Wrote extensively about logic and ethics. The Categorical Imperative (the universal ethical command) is to treat others not as a means (a thing) but as an end. Each human is entitled to the integrity of being regarded as a moral agent.
John Stuart Mill - Utilitarian
Actions are right that promote happiness and pleasure.
(British, 1806—73) Empiricist; described inductive reasoning (which is used by science); added the qualitative principle to earlier Utilitarianism, claiming that some pleasures are better than others, for example reading Socrates is better than a pig's wallowing. An advocate of woman's suffrage.
William James - Pragmatist and early psychologist.
(U.S., 1842—1910) Those ideas that are the most useful are the most likely to be true. Ideas precede action (changing beliefs will change actions). Wrote about consciousness, will, and interest. Early study of world religions. (See, "Proofs of God") Brother of novelist Henry James.
John Dewey - Pragmatist and education reformer.
(U.S., 1859—1952) Viewed democracy as primary ethical value. In education, he worked to end authoritarian methods; he urged learning through experiment and practice. An advocate of woman's suffrage.
Bertrand Russell - Logician and Empiricist.
(British, 1872—1970) Skeptic; opposed to any dogmatism. Ethical relativist; imprisoned twice for his pacifism. Wrote general descriptions and history of Philosophy. Awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature. Leading Philosopher of Twentieth Century English-speaking philosophers. God bless him, he spent 3 volumes demonstrating that mathematics could be explained by the rules of formal logic.
Jean-Paul Sartre - Existentialist
(French, 1905—80) Claimed "existence precedes essence." No fixed human nature; thus, everyone has total freedom and is responsible for results of action. A prolific writer, he also used fiction to describe his philosophical ideas. Lifetime companion of Simone de Beauvoir. Leading Philosopher of Twentieth Century continental Europe.
Simone de Beauvoir - Feminist and existentialist.
(French, 1908—86) First French female Ph.D. in Philosophy. Wrote extensively about Existentialism; also, about ethics, the status of women, and the status of the elderly. In addition, she used fiction and autobiography to describe philosophical ideas.
John Rawls - Justice is fairness.
(U.S., 1921—2002) Using the social contract theory, he balanced liberty and equality. In particular, he claimed inequalities in wealth and power must consider the advantage of those who have the least.
Carol Gilligan - Feminist and advocate of Caring Ethics.
(U.S., b. 1936) Emphasized empathy and compassion as a part of moral decision-making; contrasted with Kantianism that considered only rules.
(Okay, so it's the top 21, not 20.)
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For Review -
One more time!
"The Top Twenty"
Thales - "All is water."
Pythagoras - Cosmic harmony is based on the relations of numbers.
Zeno - Devised paradoxes showing that time and motion do not exist.
Protagoras - "Man is the measure of all things."
Socrates - "First, Do No Harm."
"Nothing to extremes."
"The unexamined life is not worth living."
His method included dialectic and paradox.
Plato - Innate forms lead to understanding of ordinary experience.
Wrote Dialogues about Socrates.
Wrote "The Republic."
Aristotle - "Man is a political animal."
Wrote earliest books on logic, biology, physics, and many others.
Aquinas, St. Thomas - Used reason to prove the existence of God.
William of Occam- "Occam's Razor."
The simplest explanation is usually the best.
Rene Descartes - Modern philosopher who began with doubt.
"I think, therefore, I am."
Dualist
John Locke - Knowledge comes from sensory experience.
David Hume - Skeptic.
Immanuel Kant - Morality is based on a universal rule.
The Categorical Imperative.
John Stuart Mill - Actions are right that promote happiness and pleasure.
William James - Pragmatist and early psychologist.
John Dewey - Pragmatist and education reformer.
Bertrand Russell - Logician and Empiricist.
Jean-Paul Sartre - Existentialist.
Simone de Beauvoir - Feminist and existentialist.
John Rawls - Justice is fairness.
Carol Gilligan - Feminist and advocate of Caring Ethics.
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